Lyndon B. Johnson in a black and white photo in front of an American flag, holding up a peace sign, in front of a podium and sign that says, "7th Annual Convention, Illinois State"
Speech:

Address to the AFL-CIO Building and Construction Trades Department Conference

Speaker:

Lyndon B. Johnson

1961 - 1980 / Civil Rights and Labor Justice
Lyndon Baines Johnson was born on August 27, 1908, in the middle of the Hill Country in Stonewall, Texas. Johnson’s father, Sam Ealy Johnson Jr., was an elected representative in the Texas legislature, fashioning himself as a populist and “man of the people.” LBJ’s mother, Rebekah Baines Johnson, was the highly-educated daughter of an attorney. Johnson’s parents moved to a small farm in Texas. Life on the farm was not as easy as the standard of living his parents were accustomed to. Indeed, Johnson would frequently tell of the difficulties his family faced growing up and his own work in the cotton fields. While these hardships were likely exaggerated by Johnson, he nevertheless developed “a natural sympathy for the poor and oppressed.” During his late teens, Johnson also worked with Latinx and African American laborers while building and repairing roads.  Read more.
Dalip Singh Saund smiling in a black and white photo in front of the capitol
Speech:

Statement on the Civil Rights Act of 1957

Speaker:

Dalip Singh Saund

1941 - 1960 / Civil Rights and Race Equity
When Dalip Singh Saund came to the United States, South Asian residents were ineligible for citizenship. Saund was born in Punjab, India in 1899, and immigrated to the United States at twenty years of age to further his education. Even though Saund planned to return to India once he finished school, his next trip to India happened forty years later as a Member of Congress. After Saund earned his master’s and doctorate degrees at the University of California, Berkeley, he developed an interest in local affairs.  Read more.
Black and white photo of Mary Church Terrell sitting in a chair in a white dress and hat
Speech:

What it Means to be Colored in the Capital

Speaker:

Mary Church Terrell

1900 - 1940 / Civil Rights and Race Equity
As more Black people migrated to Washington D.C. following the Civil War, many white citizens perceived the nation’s capital to be a place that granted Black people the leisure of white society. In 1894, one citizen wrote in the Hawaiian Star that the capital was “a negro aristocracy.” This writer claimed that Washington D.C. was “one spot on earth where a part of their number has a social standing, and where they are something more than mere hewers of wood and drawers of water.”  Read more.
A. Phillip Randolph, black and white portrait in a suit, staring into the camera
Speech:

Endorsement of Hubert Humphrey followed by Questions and Answers with Reporters

Speaker:

A. Phillip Randolph

1961 - 1980 / Civil Rights and Race Equity
Philip Randolph was born in Jacksonville, Florida on April 15, 1889. Asa Philip was born to working-class parents that exuberated race pride and religious piety. After attending college and finding the working conditions of the Jim Crow South untenable, Randolph moved to New York in 1911.  Read more.
Director F. H. LaGuardia (center) and Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt, Assistant Director of the O.C.D. (left) with James M. Landis (right); Black and white photo of the three of them talking at a desk in between two flags
Speech:

Testimony of Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Assistant Director, Office of Civilian Defense

Speaker:

Eleanor Roosevelt

1941 - 1960 / Civil Rights and National Security
Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was born on October 11, 1884, in New York City to the wealthy Roosevelt family. After attending secondary school, she became involved with social reform work for the first time at age 18 by teaching children who were part of poorer, immigrant communities and working with the National Consumers League to end dangerous working conditions in factories.[note]Eleanor Roosevelt, The Autobiography of Eleanor Roosevelt (New York: Harper Perennial, 2014), 39-40.[/note] When Roosevelt was 20, she married Franklin Delano Roosevelt, a distant cousin. After the outbreak of World War I in 1914, she volunteered with the American Red Cross.[note]Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt, 91.[/note] After the war, Roosevelt worked with activist organizations, taught at a private girls’ school, founded a non-profit furniture factory, and helped her husband return to politics after he was paralyzed by polio in 1921. She used her influence within the New York State Democratic Party and campaigned throughout the state to help Franklin become governor of New York in 1928.[note]Betty Caroli, First Ladies: From Martha Washington to Michelle Obama (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 192-193.[/note] Eleanor Roosevelt became First Lady of the United States after Franklin was sworn in as president in 1933. She served in the position until Franklin’s death in 1945. Although originally reluctant to be First Lady,[note]Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt, 163.[/note] Roosevelt soon transformed the position from a ceremonial, hostess-type role to one more involved in policy.[note]Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt, 173-184.[/note] As First Lady, Roosevelt championed the rights of the poor and the disadvantaged. She advocated for civil rights, women’s rights, and for migrants and refugees. She traveled frequently around the country to inspect Great Depression living conditions and New Deal relief projects. She was often referred to as the President’s eyes, ears and legs, and “sometimes even his conscience.”[note]Geoffrey C. Ward, “First Among First Ladies,” New York Times, June 13, 1982, https://www.nytimes.com/1982/06/13/books/first-among-first-ladies.html.[/note] In 1933, she was the first First Lady to hold her own press conference,[note]Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt, 171.[/note] allowing only women journalists, typically barred from press conferences, to attend.[note]Shawn J. Parry-Giles and Diane M. Blair, “The Rise of the Rhetorical First Lady: Politics, Gender Ideology, and Women's Voice, 1789-2002,” Rhetoric and Public Affairs 5, no. 4 (2002): 582.[/note] She was also the first First Lady to write a syndicated daily column, entitled “My Day,” and host a weekly radio show where she recounted her activities and shared her political views.[note]Robert P. Watson, First Ladies of the United States: A Biographical Dictionary (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002), 221-222.[/note] Roosevelt was also the first First Lady to receive a federal appointment, to address a national convention, and to testify before Congress.[note]Stephen Smith, “The Roosevelts as a Political Team,” APM Reports (Minnesota Public Radio, August 26, 2020), https://www.apmreports.org/episode/2014/11/12/the-roosevelts-as-a-political-team.[/note] She did so twice, in 1940 and 1942, both times to advocate for improved conditions for migrant populations.[note]Parry-Giles and Blair, “The Rise of the Rhetorical First Lady,” 579.[/note] During World War II, Roosevelt served as the Assistant Director of Civilian Defense.[note]Matthew Dallek, Defenseless Under the Night: The Roosevelt Years and the Origins of Homeland Security (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 4.[/note] The Office of Civilian Defense was established by Executive Order on May 20, 1941. Although FDR declared the country’s neutrality in the war during 1939, he also emphasized the need to strengthen the country’s national defense because of threats to American cities from the Japanese and the Germans. He accordingly directed the OCD to coordinate defense activities between federal, state, and local governments via nine regional offices. It aimed to to protect American life and property, as well as to recruit and train auxiliary teams of volunteers in the case of emergency.[note]“Records of the Office of Civilian Defense,” The National Archives and Records Administration, August 15, 2016, https://www.archives.gov/riverside/finding-aids/rg171-civilian-defense.html.[/note] First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt expanded the OCD’s mission to focus on improving social conditions by expanding citizen participation among women and African Americans in particular. Director Fiorella LaGuardia put First Lady Roosevelt in charge of such social outreach, after FDR appointed her as assistant director in September of 1941, because he considered this work to be “sissy stuff.”[note]Donald A. Ritchie, “Office of Civilian Defense,” in The Eleanor Roosevelt Encyclopedia (Westport, CT: ABC-CLIO, 2001), 387-388.[/note] After the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the OCD took on renewed importance.[note]Ritchie, The Eleanor Roosevelt Encyclopedia, 388.[/note] On the day after the attacks, Roosevelt flew to the West Coast to oversee civilian defense preparations and reassure the public, taking the “unpopular stand of calling for tolerance toward Japanese Americans and the maintenance of civil liberties during wartime.”[note]Ritchie, The Eleanor Roosevelt Encyclopedia, 389.[/note] Eleanor Roosevelt testified before Congress in her capacity as Assistant Director before the Select Committee Investigating National Defense Migration on January 14, 1942. The Committee was chaired by Representative John H. Tolan of California and sought to analyze the interstate movement of people looking for employment due to the Great Depression. It evaluated the problems faced by migrants as they moved from the Dust Bowl to the West. By 1941, the OCD had changed its scope to focus on the war and the workers moving across the country to military production jobs.[note]National Archives and Records Service, “Records of the Select Committee of the House of Representatives Investigating National Defense Migration, 1940-43,” National Archives Preliminary Inventories 71 (1954).[/note] These specific Washington hearings related to the “maintenance of civilian morale,” and Roosevelt spoke of the workings and structure of the civilian defense office, with a particular emphasis on the problems faced by migrant workers and minorities.[note]National Defense Migration: Pursuant to H. Res. 113, Hearings before the Select Committee Investigating National Defense Migration, 77th Cong., 2nd sess., 9766 (1942) (statement of Eleanor Roosevelt, Assistant Director, Office of Civilian Defense).[/note] Press coverage of Roosevelt’s testimony at the time emphasized her focus on meeting human needs and her advocacy for greater opportunities for minority groups “in the defense of the country.”[note]“Conferees Return OCD to La Guardia,” New York Times, January 15, 1942.[/note] Chairman Tolan also referred to her as “Migrant No.1” due to her work on behalf of migrant populations.[note]“Refers to First Lady As Our ‘Migrant No. 1,” New York Times, January 15, 1942.[/note] In February of 1942, after just five months in the position, Roosevelt chose to resign.[note]Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt, 230-231.[/note] She reportedly knew that a complete overhaul of the office was necessary and her involvement would only enhance the controversy that swirled about it. She described her time as Assistant Director as “one of the experiences she least regretted putting behind her.” She believed that as First Lady, she was not fairly judged on her own individual merits because her position made her an optimal target for FDR’s critics.[note]Ritchie, The Eleanor Roosevelt Encyclopedia, 388-390; Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt, 226.[/note] The OCD was closed in 1945, with the end of WWII. Although its domestic drills and services were largely unnecessary, the office did create valuable civil defense measures that were later used during national disasters (such as sandbag stockpiling during hurricanes).[note]Homeland Security National Preparedness Task Force, "Civil Defense and Homeland Security: A Short History of National Preparedness Efforts," U.S. Department of Homeland Security, September 2006, http://training.fema.gov/EMIWeb/edu/docs/DHS%20Civil%20Defense-HS%20-%20Short%20History.pdf.[/note] Following Franklin Roosevelt’s death in 1945, Eleanor Roosevelt was appointed by President Truman to the U.N. General Assembly, where she served as chair of the Human Rights Committee and helped draft the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[note]Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt, 314.[/note] Eleanor Roosevelt died on November 7, 1962. She left behind a “great legacy,” with a simple goal of “dignity and decency for all.”[note]Blanche Wiesen Cook, "Woman of the Century: Eleanor Roosevelt's Biographer Assesses the Legacy of a First Lady Who Sought Justice for All,” The Woman’s Review of Books 17, no. 10/11 (2000): 22-23.[/note]  Read more.
John Lewis in a color photo, speaking in front of a microphone in a suit. Screenshot from C-Span House proceedings with the captions "Live" and "Rep. John Lewis, D-Georgia"
Speech:

Lewis Statement on Marriage Equality

Speaker:

John Lewis

2001 - present / Civil Rights and Gender Equity
John Robert Lewis (February 21, 1940 – July 17, 2020) was born on his family’s farm outside of Troy, Alabama. His parents, Willie Mae and Eddie Lewis, were sharecroppers. As a child, Lewis attended segregated public schools in Pike County, Alabama. In his memoir, Lewis wrote of encounters with racist violence and inequitable segregation during his childhood.  Read more.
Rosalyn Carter Photo speaking in front of a podium and multiple microphones, smiling
Speech:

Remarks of the First Lady at the Gridiron Dinner

Speaker:

Rosalynn Carter

1961 - 1980 / Civil Rights and Gender Equity
First Lady Rosalynn Carter used her influence to expand the role of first lady. With the potential to be the “most active First Lady in decades,” Carter lobbied for the Equal Rights Amendment and mental health programs, and she also encouraged Americans to volunteer for those in need, supported government aid for the elderly, and championed extracurricular activities for the youth.  Read more.
Gloria Steinem close-up portrait with her hand near her face and glasses on; black and white photo
Speech:

Speech to Naval Academy

Speaker:

Gloria Steinem / Dorothy Pitman Hughes

1961 - 1980 / Civil Rights and Gender Equity
By 1972, Gloria Steinem and Dorothy Pitman Hughes had toured together for two years as a dynamic speaking duo, lecturing on the Women’s Liberation movement. The interracial pair hoped to galvanize grassroots support for the movement and to help establish feminism as intersectional and mainstream. On May 4, 1972, however, the pair faced an audience unlike any they had addressed before. The two women spoke to a field house full of United States Naval Academy (USNA) men.  Read more.
This photograph shows women in LaForge, Missouri, listening to speech by a visiting public health official of the Farm Security Administration, a New Deal agency. Black and white photo of women on pews outside
Speech:

A Voice from the Eastern Shore

Speaker:

Marie Watson

1941 - 1960 / Civil Rights and Gender Equity

Marie Watson, a field worker for the Maryland League of Planned Parenthood, delivered “A Voice from the Eastern Shore” on November 5, 1945. It was the only speech given at the annual meeting of the Prince George’s League for Planned Parenthood in Hyattsville, Maryland. The speech was recorded by Georgia K. Benjamin, a civic leader involved in such women’s organizations as the Maryland League of Women Voters. In this speech, Watson argued that Planned Parenthood was a “new way of life” for black people who face significant barriers in accessing affordable housing, quality medical care, adequate education, and healthy food.[note]Marie Watson, “A Voice from the Eastern Shore,” Georgia K. Benjamin Papers, “Speeches and Papers on Family Planning, 1941-1953,” Special Collections, Box 1, Folder 3, University of Maryland Libraries, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, para. 14.[/note] Systemic oppression caused a litany of health problems for African Americans from exposure to rats, typhus, trash, and unsanitary or inadequate food and water.[note]“Summary Report: Prince George’s County Health Study Group, 1948-1949,” Georgia K. Benjamin Papers, “Speeches and Papers on Family Planning, 1941-1953,” Special Collections, Box 1, Folder 3, University of Maryland Libraries, University of Maryland, College Park, MD.[/note] Watson advocated that Planned Parenthood could help combat such health hazards, and she felt compelled to spread the organization’s mission to community members across the Eastern Shore.

The Planned Parenthood League of Maryland formed in 1927. Even though it was headquartered in Bethesda, Maryland, it served the entire state of Maryland. Originally called the Bureau for Contraceptive Advice, it was rebranded as the Baltimore Birth Control Clinic in 1932. Soon after its rebranding, the organization became a member of the national Planned Parenthood Federation. By 1942, both local and national groups were officially renamed “Planned Parenthood.”[note]“History & Highlights,” Planned Parenthood of Maryland, Inc., 2018, https://www.plannedparenthood.org/planned-parenthood-maryland/who-we-are/history-highlights.[/note] The mission of Planned Parenthood sought to educate its clients and to bring health care services to residents on the Eastern Shore. But, as Watson emphasized, women faced racial discrimination when accessing health care. In addition to the systemic equalities Watson discussed, there were separate clinics for black women and white women.[note]The landmark decision of Simkins v. Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital ruled that racial segregation in publicly funded hospitals was a violation of equal protection under the United States Constitution in 1963. In 1964, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned discrimination on the basis of race, color, or national origin for any agency receiving state or federal funding. See: Ezelle Sanford III, “Civil Rights and Healthcare: Remembering Simkins v. Cone (1963),” African American Intellectual History Society, February 4, 2017, https://www.aaihs.org/civil-rights-and-healthcare-remembering-simkins-v-cone-1963/.[/note] To try to rectify these inequities, Executive Director Anne G. Huppman announced that Planned Parenthood of Maryland would serve low-income populations, especially those who seldom saw a physician annually.[note]Anne G. Huppmann, “Mission Statement,” December 17, 1957, Planned Parenthood of Maryland LC215, Langsdale Library Special Collections, Baltimore Regional Studies Archives, Box 1, University of Baltimore, Baltimore, MD.[/note] This tenet of Planned Parenthood’s mission helps explain the organization’s emphasis on preventative care and cancer detection; many of their patients rarely visited a doctor.

In 1945, the same year as Watson’s speech, the Maryland Legislative Assembly made Maryland the first state to provide medical services for the medically indigent. It also allowed care to be given in the home.[note]Georgia K. Benjamin, “The Maryland Plan for Medical Services,” Georgia K. Benjamin Papers, “Speeches and Papers on Family Planning, 1941-1953,” Special Collections, Box 1, Folder 3, University of Maryland Libraries, University of Maryland. “Medically indigent” refers to those who cannot afford health care or are ineligible for health care services.[/note] Despite these policy changes, the 1948 Prince George’s County Health Study Group found the county “20 years behind the times in recognition of its responsibility to protect the health of its citizens.”[note]“Summary Report.”[/note] Overcrowded clinics and a lack of access to health care meant mothers and children suffered. Maternal mortality rates were high and 90 percent of illegal abortions were performed on married women.[note]Georgia K. Benjamin, “Peace Begins in the Home,” Georgia K. Benjamin Papers, “Speeches and Papers on Family Planning, 1941-1953,” Special Collections, Box 1, Folder 3, University of Maryland Libraries, University of Maryland, College Park, MD.[/note]

With so much work to be done, Watson and Planned Parenthood sought to raise awareness of the organization’s ability to help mothers and children, particularly from black families. At the time of Watson’s speech, Planned Parenthood was focused on preventing unwanted pregnancy, offering fertility assistance, and providing marriage counseling. Planned Parenthood meant what its name implies: “parenthood entered into willingly with adequate preparation for the strains and sacrifices it imposes.”[note]Karl Menninger, MD., “Psychiatric Aspects of Contraception,” Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic 7, no. 1 (1943), Georgia K. Benjamin Papers, “Speeches and Papers on Family Planning, 1941-1953,” Special Collections, Box 1, Folder 3, University of Maryland Libraries, University of Maryland, College Park, MD.[/note] The group’s activities included education about contraception and birth control, child spacing, disease prevention, and psychological maturity, all which could help build stable families.[note]“Planned Parenthood. What Does It Mean?,” 1947, Planned Parenthood of Maryland LC215, Langsdale Library Special Collections, Box 6, University of Baltimore, Baltimore, MD.[/note]

One of the purposes of Watson’s speech was to calm anxieties over Planned Parenthood. She specifically argued that its mission was consonant with the mission of the church. Although there is very little information available regarding Watson’s life, her relationship with the church and her relationship with Planned Parenthood is clearly explained in “A Voice from the Eastern Shore.” Watson explained her preacher husband’s disapproval of her work.[note]Watson, “A Voice from the Eastern Shore,” para. 4.[/note] Yet she did not explain how she continued to work with the Women’s Society for Christian Service to spread her message in churches across the region in spite of such opposition.[note]Watson, “A Voice from the Eastern Shore,” para. 10.[/note] As of 1945, her travels had brought her over 322 contacts in 30 religious and women’s groups.[note]Watson, “A Voice from the Eastern Shore,” para. 13.[/note]In 1947, Bishop G. Bromley Oxnam affirmed the relationship between Planned Parenthood and the church by stating, “Planned Parenthood is one of the expressions of the Christian principle that affirms the infinite worth of a human being.”[note]“Planned Parenthood. What Does It Mean?”[/note] The organization sought to save women and children by bettering their physical health, psychological wellbeing, and health care experiences.

Watson concluded her speech with hope and optimism about Planned Parenthood’s ability to save lives and create happier homes and healthier people. To accomplish these goals, she sought to tell the people of the Eastern Shore about its helpful services and to lead the charge for opening more clinics.[note]Watson, “A Voice from the Eastern Shore,” para. 14[/note] By 1947, two years after Watson’s speech, there were six clinics in the state operating under the Maryland League of Planned Parenthood.[note]Benjamin, “The Maryland Plan for Medical Services.”[/note]

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Rose Winslow black and white portrait, 1916, close up in white and black outfit with hat
Speech:

On Suffrage

Speaker:

Rose Winslow

1900 - 1940 / Civil Rights and Gender Equity

Rose Winslow (Ruża Wenclawska) was one of many Polish immigrants coming to the United States in the late nineteenth century. Even though we do not know her birth date, we know that she was eleven when her family moved to Pennsylvania presumably in the 1890s. To support her family, she worked ten to twelve-hour days in the textile mills. Working conditions in the textile industry were catastrophic and, like many of her peers, Winslow contracted tuberculosis when she was a teenager. This experience motivated Winslow to become a labor organizer for the Garment Workers’ Union League and a labor advocate with the Consumer’s League.[note]Linda Ford, Iron-Jawed Angels: The Suffrage Militancy of the National Woman’s Party, 1912-1920 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1991), 60-63; Katherine H. Adams and Michael L. Keene, After the Vote Was Won: The Later Achievements of Fifteen Suffragists (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2010), 16.[/note] As part of her advocacy for workers’ rights, Winslow testified before legislative hearings in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania to advocate for—among other things—an eight-hour workday for women.

Winslow’s eloquent speech in Harrisburg circulated widely and attracted the attention of Alice Paul, the leader of the National Women’s Party (NWP).[note]Ford, Iron-Jawed Angels, 60-63.[/note] The NWP was one of the more radical groups advocating for women’s votes, undertaking the most militant and visible tactics of the women’s suffrage movement (e.g., suffrage parades, suffrage protests in front of President Wilson’s White House). Paul actively recruited women from the working class who could eloquently spread the suffrage message, and Winslow was one of Paul’s most prominent recruits.[note]Ibid., 91-120.[/note] As part of the NWP, Winslow undertook a speaking tour of the United States and even spoke in front of President Wilson.[note]“Miss Rose Winslow,” Times-Leader, June 16, 1915; “Workers Here to Ask Wilson for Suffrage,”Washington Post, February 1, 1914; “Party in Power False to Cause of Suffragists,”The Morning Echo, October 23, 1914.[/note]

Winslow also took part in the “Silent Sentinel” protests—one of the more radical expressions of protest under Paul’s leadership. During these protests, NWP members protested silently in front of President Wilson’s White House every day for over two years.[note]Belinda A. Stillion Southard, Militant Citizenship: Rhetorical Strategies of the National Woman’s Party, 1913-1920 (College Station: Texas A&M University, 2011), 121-148.[/note] These protests and her eventual arrest by police on trumped-up charges demonstrated Winslow’s dedication and spirit of self-sacrifice. During their time in prison together, both Winslow and Paul participated in hunger strikes and were force-fed by prison guards. Winslow captured just how grueling such feedings were for them when she wrote: “one lies prone and people shove a pipe down one’s stomach.” In notes passed along to supporters from her prison cell, Winslow disclosed, “I heard myself making the most hideous sounds, like an animal in pain.”[note]Rose Winslow, “Prison Notes, Smuggled to Friends from the District Jail (1917),” in Treacherous Texts: U.S. Suffrage Literature, 1846-1946, ed. Mary Chapman and Angela Mills (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2011), 282-283.[/note] As Belinda A. Stillion Southard attests, this experience, alongside other forms of prison mistreatment, contributed to the sense of “militant identity” among the suffragists during the later stages of their movement.[note]Stillion Southard, Militant Citizenship, 144-148.[/note]

Efforts like Winslow’s to unite the suffrage and working-class movements were essential to the growth of both movements’ successes in the early 1910s.[note]Ibid., 50.[/note] Against the backdrop of growing consciousness of the labor and suffrage movements, Winslow engaged in a speaking tour that brought her to Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, in June of 1915. Before an audience of predominantly male workers, Winslow faced a challenge of persuading them to support women’s suffrage. She also needed to address her own identity as a suffragist hailing from the working class. As a working-class advocate attracted to the suffrage movement, Winslow argued that women’s suffrage was crucial to all workers—men and women alike. This argument was not an easy one to advance. The male-dominated workers’ movement often failed to recognize the challenges faced by women in factories and other low-income jobs.[note]Alice Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in The United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 95, 156-157, 269.[/note] The women’s suffrage movement also struggled to unite working-class and middle- and upper-class women. [note]Ford, Iron-Jawed Angels, 92-120.[/note] In fighting for women’s rights as workers and as voters, Winslow experienced gender and class tensions within both movements.

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